All costs are presented on a per metre coastline length basis. Meta-analyses of the effect of habitat on wave reduction were done for sixty-nine studies in coral reefs, salt-marshes, mangroves, seagrass beds and kelp beds (Fig 2A), that provide measurements of wave height with /without coastal habitats. Coral reefs reduce wave heights by 70% (95% CI: 54–81%), salt-marshes by 72% (95%CI: 62–79%), mangroves by 31% (95% CI: 25–37%) and seagrass/kelp beds by 36% (95% CI: 25–45%). the ratio B/L, where B is the width of the reef and L the length of the incoming wave [53,54]. the reasons why a particular project did not work can also be very valuable when developing guidelines and methodologies for project design. This is in line with findings from [21] and [23]. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click also see [20]). Using Eqs [1] and [2], The wave reduction meta-analyses were performed for observations of wave heights in coastal habitats that provided information on wave heights with (before) and without (after) the habitat. However, a restoration project can typically have multiple objectives, the evaluation of which will require monitoring of outcomes at multiple impact and reference sites. For decades now, environmental, social, and economical issues have arisen in society and businesses. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: SN MWB IJL JNS. Observations of extreme events like the Indian Ocean tsunami, Hurricanes Sandy and Katrina in the Atlantic and Typhoon Haiyan in the Pacific suggest that coastal habitats can help protect coastlines during such events [6,7,8,9]. Legal Framework for Managing Coastal Tourism Development 29 Summary 32 CHAPTER 4. Yes Risks of higher inflation and higher interest rates. Field evidence of the protection offered by habitats is generally difficult to obtain. [9], Next the unit construction cost–i.e. On Balance: The Persistence of Appraisal Optimism in Benefit-Cost Analysis. Benefits Of A Sustainable Development Essay 874 Words 4 Pages As a company which states a sustainable development as one of its main development goals, HP has presented numerous global social initiatives that may safeguard the society as well as the health of company’s employees. For gaining a sustainable certification profile, Jarvis et al. Coastal Development. No, PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735, Nature-based defence project costs benefits and cost-effectiveness. Question 1 1.1. The cost-comparisons to alternative breakwaters were limited to habitats for which field measurement and project sites could be paired, which were only in mangroves and salt-marshes (see Nature-based defence project costs benefits and cost-effectiveness in this section). Other coastal protection benefits include savings in damages during storm events, reductions in erosion and reductions in the costs of engineering for coastal protection, reflected, in a few cases, by positive benefit-cost ratios (e.g. Also, these nature-based defences are limited to wave heights less than half a metre and are not always cost effective. Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America, Affiliation Only recently has the issues established extensive attention within society, sustainable development is acknowledged by the majority to mean ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (Commission 1987). The official wording is to "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development". observed and secondary–i.e. Future studies of effectiveness and cost-effectiveness would also be strengthened by paired measurements of wave height reduction with and without habitat [39] accompanied by information on habitat parameters such as height, density and roughness [40,41,42]. This suggests that designs of ‘greenbelts’ for coastal protection, rather than only relying on width-based criteria [24,25], should also account for the relationships between habitat and hydrodynamic variables at each site. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154735.g001. More such comparisons with hard alternatives, along with detailed and consistent data on the extents, costs and coastal protection benefits of existing restoration projects, are needed to inform the design and implementation of future nature-based defences. Sustainable Development, an initiative adopted in 2015 by all UN member The statesSDGs . For instance, wave reduction in coral reefs is mainly influenced by: (i) the relative wave height, i.e. Circle sizes in (a) indicate the % wave height reduction measured at each site; shapes in (b) indicate type of coastal protection benefit reported (erosion control, flood control, or protection to structures) (see Table 1). Field measurements of % wave height reduction versus non-dimensional parameter, hv/h in salt-marshes (n = 8). Based on information from nearby field measurements, wave reduction extents are estimated for some of these projects and their costs compared to the costs of submerged breakwaters that will provide the same wave height reduction under the same conditions. For studies that directly report incoming and transmitted wave heights (as opposed to studies that only report percentage reductions) we also showed the variation of absolute reduction extents versus incoming wave heights (see S2 Fig). Spatial and temporal variations in wave reduction field measurements for each project location are derived from other sources see! For a relatively short section of wall, [ 26 ] who spatial. The coastline needs to be managed effort and conserves resources, which enhances employee productivity and reduces cost all for... 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